Expectancy vs. Equity

Introduction For organizations to achieve their respective missions, they should motivate their employees and volunteers. Thus, managers/CEOs should establish, ratify, and embrace motivational provisions within the workforce. This is applicable in all organizations (whether for-profit or not) and forms an important requirement in this context. This paper considers the merits of the expectancy and equity theories with regard to employee motivation.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Expectancy vs. Equity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This occurs in order to develop an effective incentive program meant to motivate employees, increasing productivity, and allowing the organization to fulfill its missions considerably as indicated before (Humphreys Einstein, 2004). The designed program will serve to motivate both employees and volunteers of non-profit organizations. It will also consider how to utilize monetary and non-monetary factors effectively. Identifying unique interests of the non-profit managers Evidently, managers of non-profit organizations possess unique interests meant to enable them accomplish their respective obligations. This regards organizational growth and achievement of desired objectives. Since such organizations are not aiming to make huge monetary returns (non-profit), it is important that they attain their preset objectives. This is only achievable when employees are highly motivated and strive to accomplish their respective obligations. Precisely, non-profit managers endeavor to work with limited resources, have a mission-driven workforce, attain a prosperous organization, and accomplish the organization’s obligations promptly as scheduled. As indicated before, this provision requires motivated employees and volunteers charged to accomplish their mandates in a timely manner. Additionally, there are different types and levels of personnel that the developed plan s hould recognize. In this context, any non-profit organization might have volunteers, subordinate staff, junior employees, line managers, unit managers, CEOs, and directors plus their deputies. These are major groups constituting the entire workforce; nonetheless, each group can be subdivided to suit the missions and structure of the concerned organization.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Equity, Expectancy, or Hybrid The principles of both Equity and expectancy theories can be adopted in developing a useful recognition plan for motivating employees. Equity theory indicates that employees will be motivated if they realize that the benefits (both monetary and non-monetary) they obtain from their employer (concerned non-profit organization) equal or surpass those of other organizations operating in the similar caliber. This is a critical provision when considered on the workfo rce’s context. In case the benefits are less, it is probable that employees and volunteers will be less motivated. This might interfere with their overall productivity (Klein, 1973). Conversely, expectancy theory indicates that the future prospects of employees can motivate them considerably. Creating positive expectations or outcomes for future organizational events can obviously motivate the concerned workforce. This is a crucial consideration in the entire operational and motivational contexts. Upon critical deliberations, it is important to argue that either equity theory or expectancy theory cannot be applied solitarily for developing the desired recognition plan in the realms of workforce motivation. For this matter, a hybrid approach will be quite appropriate. As employees compare their respective benefits with those of others entities (equity theory), they should also prospect positive events in future (expectancy theory). These will obviously raise their morale hence accomplishing their duties promptly. The organization will eventually obtain its missions in the similar context. Hence, combining the two theories (hybrid approach) will be contextually preferable. Explaining how Equity or Expectancy theory is more effective in motivating employees at different levels Both equity and expectancy theories are helpful in motivating employees as alleged earlier. With regard to the equity theory, it is recognizable that employees will observe the aspects of impartiality, fairness, and justice practiced by the management. If they perceive these provisions positively, they will obviously get motivated (Skiba Rosenberg, 2011). Conversely, the aspects of unfairness, inequality, and injustice will obviously demoralize the concerned workforce.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Expectancy vs. Equity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This provision indicates the applicability of equity theo ry in the context of motivation. Both equity and expectancy theories are applicable and effective in motivating employees at different levels within the organization. Both CEOs and administrative assistants require equity, fairness, and justice in their job specifications in order to perform considerably. Concurrently, Expectancy theory equally provides employees with such provisions. All employees and volunteers regardless of the rank need to have positive expectations and future organizational and individual prospects in order to remain focused and motivated in their works. The theory renders employees (the entire workforce) hopeful in their endeavors. They consequently desire to achieve the projected objectives both at personal organizational level. Justifying expectancy or equity theory in managing workforce It is justifiable that both equity and expectancy theories are viable provisions in managing workforce (from a non-profit organization in this context). This is evident in a rticulating its impacts on both paid staff and volunteer workers. Both groups need motivational provisions in their endeavors. Additionally, there should be no differences developed in the recognition programs for all categories of staff. Equity should be exercised within the entire organization and to all employees regardless of their ranks. Employees and volunteers should be treated equitably and accordingly. This is a critical condition in the entire context. Concurrently, the organization should set future prospects, which are motivating to the entire workforce. Despite the variability of job specifications among different employees, the ultimate motivational aspects should be universal for all. Presence or Absence of a reward system for organizational performance, divisional performance, individual performance, or combination Incentives and rewards are important provisions within the workforce. Their presence or absence within the organization can pose considerable impacts. Pre cisely, the presence of a viable reward system within the organization can enhance performance since employees will be highly motivated, prospective, and productive. Consequently, the organization will attain its objectives in a timely manner.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conversely, the absence of such reward systems will demoralize employees and volunteers. This will reduce organizational performance. Concurrently, similar effects will be realized with the divisional performance (Chen, Gupta Hoshower, 2006). The presence of reward systems will enhance the division performance while its absence will deprive it. When individual employees are less motivated, it is agreeable that their performances will diminish. This indicates why it is very important to establish, ratify, and nurture reward systems within non-profit organizations. How equity and expectancy theory address group versus individual goals Equity and expectancy theories tend to address group goals by advocating for uniformity in the realms of fairness, justice, and impartiality within the workforce. Additionally, they create common prospective expectations within the entire organization (Miner, 2007). Consequently, both employees and the management will endeavor to accomplish their obliga tions for the company to attain its projected missions. Individuals will equally gain their respective goals and projected motivation. Conclusion Non-profit organizations’ managers have unique interests in their endeavors. It is important to conclude that both equity and expectancy theories are applicable within non-profit organizations. This relates to benefits they offer with respect to employees’ motivation. This is a critical concern when scrutinized decisively. It is important to create a plan that addresses these provisions with vastness, precision, and appropriateness. References Chen, Y., Gupta, A. Hoshower, L. (2006). Factors that motivate business faculty to conduct research: An expectancy theory analysis. Journal of Education for Business, 81(4), 179-189. Humphreys, J. Einstein, W. (2004). Leadership and temperament congruence: Extending the expectancy model of work motivation. Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 10(4), 58-79. Klein, S. (1973). Pay factors as predictors to satisfaction: A comparison of reinforcement, equity, and expectancy. Academy of Management Journal (Pre-1986), 16(4), 598-598. Miner, J. (2007). Organizational behavior: New York, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Skiba, M. Rosenberg, S. (2011). The disutility of equity theory in contemporary management practice. The Journal of Business and Economic Studies, 17(2), 1-19. This report on Expectancy vs. Equity was written and submitted by user Ian U. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Volkswagen Group

The Volkswagen Group Free Online Research Papers This report provides information on the Volkswagen Group. In addition to details about Group structure, describes the spectrum covered by the Volkswagen Group. My report aim to give a short look toVolkswagen Group. History of Volkswagen: In 1937 was founded the „Volkswagenwerk GmbH in Wolfsburg in Germany. After the second world war the first foreing company were establish in Canada ( Volkswagen Canada Ltd. in 1952 and then Volkswagen make a company in Brazil and in America also. In 1960s Volkswagen becomes the worlds champion when they were created The Beetle cars. The Beetle breaks the legendary production record. In 1964 Audi was join to the VW group. VW was coorporate with Sociedad Espaà ±ola de Automà ³viles de Turismo, SA (SEAT) in 1982, after they reach to opening of the Iberian market for Group.in 1990 the WV bought SKODA because they recognised that it is a good way to access to the Eastern Europe car markets.. In 1998 by acquiring Bentley Motor Cars Limited, VW expands its range in the luxury class. The Bugatti and Lamborghini brands round off the Volkswagen Groups activities in the upper range. The VW Group proudicing nowdays 151 differnt thype of models in 48 countries in the world they sell 25400 vehicals. Facts of Volkswagen Group The Volkswagen Group is one of the world’s leading automobile manufacturers and the largest carmaker in Europe. The Group is made up of eight brands from six European countries: Volkswagen, Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT, Skoda and Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles. Each brand has own character and operates as an independent entity on the market. The product range extends from low-consumption small cars to luxury class vehicles. In the commercial vehicle sector, the product offering spans pick ups, busses and heavy trucks also. The main factory is till in Wolsburg and in Germany. But for example they have factory in Portugal and in Hunagary also. It curios that some of the engines is made in Hungary in Audi factory which are also used in Portugal. The Brands Volkswagen Volkswagen is a German manufacturing brand of car, based in Wolfsburg, Germany. It forms the major component (in volume of sales) of the much larger Volkswagen Group. The Volkswagen name means peoples car in German. It is means this car for everyboday. So the costmers of VW are the avarge people. This mark is not meaning cheap or expensive cars this meaning that good a cars. It is represented the common people just like in Japan it is the Toyota or in America it is the Ford. The Brands of the VW: Fox: The Volkswagen Fox is a mini car. Fox is quite similar to the competitors Opel Corsa, Fiat Palio, Ford Fiesta, Renault Clio and Peugeot 206. Class in Europe: City car. This car is produced for the people who want to use the car in the city. This is the cheapest car and this car needs the lowest Petrol. So Fox is a low cost car. Polo: The Volkswagen Polo is a supermini car.It is bigger then the Fox but stil only use in the city. Golf: The fifth generation Volkswagen was unveiled at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 2003. This car is one of the main car of VW. This car is litlle more expensive then the Polo and it is in the higer quality for use in the city and cometimes further but for a family it is not enough. Normally it is use by the young people it is a sporting and dynamic car. Jetta Mk5 It is essentially the sedan version of the compact car. Jetta is a Small family car. Class: Compact Eos The Volkswagen Eos is a four-seater retractable hardtop convertible introduced in 2006 as the successor to the Volkswagen Cabrio. The Eos is Volkswagens first production sports car. This car used normally by the young dynamic sporting persons. Class Sports car Passat The Volkswagen Passat is a family car built by Volkswagen Falling between the Golf/Jetta and Phaeton.This large family car is the most important car of VW.If a costomer think about VW know this car. Passat is used by family and businessmen. Passat competitors are Pegueot 607 For Mondeo Toyota Avensis Lexus, Audi A6. Class: Large family car Phaeton The Volkswagen Phaeton is a large sedan.This car is not for the famaily car it is only for the businesmenn. Class full size luxery car Sharan The Volkswagen Sharan is a multi-purpose vehicle produced since 1995.This car for the bigger family it is for 7 person.The Sharon is the typical holiday car. Class: Large multi-purpose vehicle Touran: The Volkswagen Touran is a compact multi-purpose vehicle based on a vertically-stretched fifth generation Volkswagen Golf. Tiguan Volkswagen Tiguan is a compact crossover SUV built by the German automaker Volkswagen.A platform of the Golf. The Trend Fun and Sport Style both have maximum approach angles of 18 degrees Touareg The Volkswagen Touareg is a mid-size sport utility vehicle (SUV). Golf 763,491 Passat/Santana 751,764 Jetta/Bora 630,355 Polo 449,602 Gol 320,604 Fox 206,125 Touran 197,941 Polo Classic/Sedan 86,861 Touareg 72,477 Eos 55,560 New Beetle 40,124 Sharan 23,807 Tiguan 16,272 Phaeton 5,711 Audi Audi is a premium German automobile manufacturer and one of the worlds leading performance-luxury marques, with headquarters in Ingolstadt, Bavaria.Audi joined to Volkswagen Group in 1964.Audi company was founded in 1910. Audi brand is a cheap luxury car. Audi being a real competitor in its target market against global luxury leaders Mercedes-Benz and BMW. The Audi is not a real competiters with VW it is itnregrate it. The Audi brand is one of the world’s fastest-growing premium brands and aims to establish itself as the leader in this segment A3 The Audi A3 is an entry-level luxury car/small family car. A4 The Audi A4 is a luxury compact executive car.It is similar to the VW Passat. A5 The Audi A5 is a luxury coupà ©. Audi bilt the coupà © as a grand tourer, to compete against the likes of the BMW E92, and the Mercedes-Benz CLK-Class. A6 The Audi A6 is a mid-size executive car.It is for Busenisman. A8 The Audi A8 is a full-size luxury executive car TT The Audi TT is a sports car, R8 The Audi R8 is a mid-engined sports car introduced A6 allroad quattro The Audi allroad quattro is a mid-size executive car; Q7 The Audi Q7 is a full-size sport utility vehicle (SUV) PRODUCTION Vehicles 2007 Audi A4 289,806 A3 231,117 A6 227,502 Q7 77,395 TT Coupà © 40,417 A5 25,549 A8 22,182 A6 allroad quattro 16,340 R8 4,125 Q5 162 Total 975,290 Bentley Motors Limited is an English manufacturer of luxury automobiles and Grand Tourers. Bentley Motors was founded in England on 18 January 1919 by Walter Owen Bentley.Since 1998 the company has been owned by the Volkswagen Group. In 1998, Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motors were purchased from Vickers by Volkswagen Group for  £430 million. Bentley is prducing only luxury cars so Bentley has no differntaton neither horizantal.There is only othert type of luxary car but not really different almost only some shape and the extras is different, but the front of the car is the same. PRODUCTION Vehicles 2007 2006 Continental GT Cabriolet 4,847 Continental Flying Spur 2,270 Continental GT Coupà © 1,547 Continental GT Speed Coupà © 593 Arnage 357 Azure 350 Brooklands 8 Skoda Auto The Volkswagen Group forms a number of companies in East Germany the Czech government takeover of the venerable Ã…  KODA, automobilov a.s. in 1990. Brand recognition promised good access to the car markets of Eastern-central and Eastern Europe. The VW bought the Eastern-central market, because they realised that the people are more likely to by their owen brand even if it is worse e.g the WV. So Skoda is a competiors of VW but exatly it is not true. Mostly Skoda car are only sold in Eastern central market it is same just like the Seat cars is for the Iberian market. The models of Skoda: Roomster The Ã…  koda Roomster is a leisure activity vehicle. The Roomster is Ã…  kodas first car since the Volkswagen Groups take over of the brand that is not based on an existing Volkswagen platform.It ia the smallest car competitors of Opel Corsa. Fabia The Ã…  koda Fabia is a supermini car.It is realted by SEAT Ibiza SEAT Cà ³rdoba Volkswagen Polo Octavia The Ã…  koda Octavia is a small family car realted by SEAT Leà ³n Volkswagen Bora Superb The Ã…  koda Superb is an executive car It is based on the platform of the Volkswagen Passat and shares its mechanicals with that model. It is currently the largest and most luxurious model in Ã…  kodas lineup PRODUCTION Vehicles 2007 Octavia 319,893 Fabia 243,576 Roomster 75,875 Superb 21,339 Sum: 9,972 SEAT is a Spanish automobile manufacturer founded in 1950 by the Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI), with Fiat assistance, and now a wholly owned subsidiary of Audi AG, part of the Volkswagen Group. The acronym SEAT stands for Sociedad Espaà ±ola de Automà ³viles de Turismo. Today, SEAT reinforces its race-bred, and aggressive image, with sporty-styled cars, such as Ibiza and Leà ³n, which have made the brand very popular among teenagers.The SEAT is producing car for the Iberian markets mostly. Ibiza Leon Altea/Toledo Cordoba Alhambra PRODUCTION Vehicles 2007 Ibiza 172,206 Leon 120,630 Altea/Toledo 76,121 Cordoba 29,747 Alhambra 14,242 412,946 PRODUCTION Lamborghini Gallardo Spyder 1,015 1,025 Gallardo 936 626 Murcià ©lago 423 323 Murcià ©lago Roadster 206 121 2,580 Facts(2007): Production of vehicals 6213000 Employees 329300 Sales revenue 108 millon Euro Production by Brands 2007/2006 This grapics shows that the main profil of the company is the Volkswagen cars which is widly used. Then come the Audi with a higher qulity and price. In the third sectoin it is the Skoda which is lower quality than the Volkswagen. Im the fourth part it is the SEAT which is for the Iberian market. The last one is the two luxary brand the Bently is for the rich old people and the Lamborghini for the dinamic young rich people. The Commercial Vehicles is in another part because it is not belonging to the normal persons it is for the companies. Innovation Shaping the future is a fascinating challenge for industry and society. Our automotive future is formed by social conditions and trends. It is our task to anticipate the future needs of our customers and to convert these needs into innovative technologies. The technological challenges of the future can only mastered by intensive research and networked cooperation both inside and outside the company. Our mission is to continue meeting our customers’ wishes for individual and affordable mobility through sustainable technologies. We work together with our partners to achieve this goal. Group Research has its headquarters in Wolfsburg and researches for all Group brands. International trendscouting and technology scouting form part of our strategic orientation and we also operate from research bases in the US, Japanese and Chinese markets. Research Papers on The Volkswagen GroupThe Fifth HorsemanMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaDefinition of Export QuotasAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeQuebec and CanadaCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

Toxic Contributory Factors Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Toxic Contributory Factors - Assignment Example According to the Success Chain (2010), â€Å"at Fannie, CEO Franklin Raines and other executives hid problems in order to get huge pay bonuses. Money was coming in, so no one questioned the faulty lending system. Libertarian activist Fred Smith told CNN that it was a case of â€Å"honorable people acting in ways that don’t appear honorable† — greed being the culprit that twisted their perception of right and wrong. Raines received $20 million in compensation after departing Fannie Mae† (Success Chain, 2010, par. 1). Another toxic organization situation was revealed by Burke & Cooper (n.d.) cited â€Å"Maria Piresferreira was awarded more than Can$500,000 by the courts in response to her complaint of physical and verbal abuse. The manager yelled at her, swore at her, accused her of not doing her job, asked her to get away from him, and pushed her away. Her employer’s human resources department (Bell Mobility) did not support her. The judge ruled tha t companies had to take reasonable action to ensure that employees would not be subjected to physical or verbal abuse or intimidation† (National Post, 2008, FP13 cited by Burke & Cooper, n.d., 21). Impact of Toxic Contributory Factors The discourse presented by Burke & Cooper enumerated financial costs of toxic contributory factors as follows: â€Å"for individuals—increased healthcare costs, job loss, loss of personal reputation, and loss of livelihood; for organizations—loss of reputation, staff turnover, diminished job performance, reduced turnover, and potential legal liabilities; for society—increased healthcare costs, income support for those losing their jobs, rehabilitation costs for those injured at... The assignment "Contributing Factors" addresses the following concerns: what impact did the toxic contributing factors have on the community, city, country, etc.; and what organizational checks and balances were missing. The discourse presented by Burke & Cooper enumerated financial costs of toxic contributory factors as follows: â€Å"for individuals—increased health care costs, job loss, loss of personal reputation, and loss of livelihood; for organizations—loss of reputation, staff turnover, diminished job performance, reduced turnover, and potential legal liabilities; for society—increased health care costs, income support for those losing their jobs, rehabilitation costs for those injured at work, and a lack of trust in institutions†. Further, the pain and the trauma caused by toxic factors inflict psychological harm to individuals. In the case of Frannie Mae, there were clear failure to countercheck the CEO’s activities from internal and external auditing units to immediately discover the alleged cover-up of the dilemma. As indicated by Gordon, â€Å"the regulators alleged an accounting fraud at Washington-based Fannie Mae that included manipulations to reach quarterly earnings targets so that Raines, Howard, Spencer and other company executives could pocket hundreds of millions in bonuses from 1998 to 2004†. In Bell Mobility’s case, there was a lack of performance evaluation and appraisals for managers to reveal the nature of their behavior and performance at work.

Spss Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spss - Essay Example The coefficient of correlation r is 0.004877, which shows a weak positive correlation between the total revenue and C.E.O’s annual salary. If total revenue increases the annual salary of the C.E.O’s also increases slightly. The U.S. Senate passed S. 1023, the "Travel Promotion Act of 2009" (TPA) in September, 2009. TPA calls for the establishment of the Corporation for Travel Promotion as an independent nonprofit corporation to promote leisure, business and scholarly visits to the U.S. In October, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the Travel Promotion Act (H.R. 1035), sending this bill back to the Senate for one last vote. The U.S. Senate finally passed this Bill (78 to 10) on February 25, 2010 and President Obama signed the Travel Promotion Act of 2009 into law on March 4, 2010. This Act calls for the creation of the Corporation for Travel Promotion (now Brand USA) which will allocate financial resources to promote the U.S. as an international destination. The promotion is funded through a matching program featuring up to $100 million in private sector contributions and a $10 fee on foreign travelers who do not pay $131 for a visa to enter the United States. The fee will be collected once every two years in conjunction with the Department of Homeland Security’s Electronic System for Travel Authorization. No money is provided by U.S. taxpayers.  It is estimated that international promotion will generate 1.6 million addition international visitors to the U.S. and create $1.6 billion in visitor spending annually. Japan is targeted as one of the major countries for aggressive promotion by the Tourism Industries Office in the Department of Commerce and Brand USA (the newly created public and private partnership responsible for marketing USA implemented by the Travel Promotion Act). As a tourism market analyst specialized in Japan inbound travel to the U.S., you

Music Sampling and Copyright Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Music Sampling and Copyright Law - Essay Example No one took advantage of these technologies more effectively than Public Enemy, who put hundreds of sampled aural fragments into It Takes a Nation and stirred them up to create a new, radical sound that changed the way we hear music. But by 1991, no one paid zero for the records they sampled without getting sued. They had to pay a lot. (McLeod, #20). Digital audio sampling poses several interesting challenges to existing property laws and by looking at the specific case of rap music, a form that is in many ways based on the opportunities presented by sampling technology, these confrontations are highlighted. (Shumacher, 1995) Before one attempts to co-relate the concepts of Copyright Laws and Music Sampling, it would be prudent to understand each of the concepts in terms of their history and origin (based on need). Only then will a co-relation between the two concepts be more comprehensible. Copyright law was established in the Constitution to "promote science and the useful arts." In the age of digital formats for music, copyright law makes it illegal for "bootleggers" to commit audio piracy by copying works of music without paying the Here is a simple case in study of the intricacies related to US Copyright Laws. Shirley Dixon was thirteen years old in 1976, when she first played the Led Zeppelin song "Whole Lotta Love" for her father. Shirley had borrowed the 1960 album Led Zeppelin II from a friend because the hit song from it reminded her

Background And Rationale Of The Study English Language Essay

Background And Rationale Of The Study English Language Essay Language assessment is an instrument for language teachers to identify the students strengths and weaknesses in language learning, to place the student into a program and to measure the use of English in four basic skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking). The assessment can be done by such methods as tests, interviews, or observations. For language teachers, the tests provide evidence of the results of learning and instruction, and hence feedback on the effectiveness of the teaching program (Bachman Palmer, 1996, p. 8). The test results enable the students to develop their performance in language learning effectively. In addition, it is very important to select the most suitable language tests which respond to the specific goals of teaching. Language teachers should also understand the functions and the characteristics of the language tests thoroughly. Many practitioners and researchers in language testing (Bachman Palmer, 1996; Brown, 1996; Hughes, 2003; McNamara, 2000) categorize four kinds of language tests based on the test purposes and functions as follows: (1) Proficiency Tests are designed to measure general language skills, including speaking, listening, reading and writing. In addition, proficiency tests generally help teachers to set up entrance and exit standards for a curriculum (Brown, 1996, p. 9). For instance, the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and International English Language Testing System (IELTS) are currently used by many universities where English language proficiency is required. (2) Achievement Tests are aimed at the degree of learning or how much progress the students have made (McNamara, 2000). So achievement tests are directly relevant to the goals of learning and instruction. These tests can be given in the middle or at the end of the program (Hughes, 2003; McNamara, 2000). (3) Diagnostic Tests are established to analyze the students strengths and weaknesses in the learning process (Brown, 1996; Hughes, 2003). These tests are conducted at the beginning of the program (Brown, 1996). (4) Placement Tests are focused on screening the students to see whether they can study in a program and grouping the students in the same level of language proficiency (Hughes, 2003). Hence, the results of these tests will enable the teachers to accurately place the students entering any institution or program (Bachman Palmer, 1996). In addition to a clear understanding of the functions and the characteristics of language tests, language teachers have to understand the construction of those tests. There are two approaches which have an influence on test construction: the discrete-point approach and the integrative approach (Hughes, 2003). For the discrete-point approach, language teachers view each language component separately, measuring one language skill at a time, such as testing grammar or vocabulary (Brown, 1996; McNamara, 2000). In language testing, discrete-point tests emphasize language form rather than language use (McNamara, 2000). However, the discrete-point test results focusing on a single language component are inadequate to determine the students language proficiency (Jitendra Rohena-Diaz, 1996). As a consequence, Oller (1979) suggests that teachers should construct language tests using the integrative approach instead. In the integrative approach, the language teachers view language as a whole, emphasizing both productive and receptive skills (Brown, 1996; Hughes, 2003; McNamara, 2000). Integrative tests, such as cloze, dictation, writing an essay, and interview, can measure several skills simultaneously (Brown, 1996; Hughes, 2003). Moreover, integrative tests are suitable for assessing language proficiency and communicative skills (Brown, 1996; McNamara, 2000). McNamara (2000) contends that integrative tests take a lot of time to construct and score, as shown in Table 1. However, cloze tests are reported to be less time consuming, easier to score, and more reliable in measuring students English language proficiency (Oller, 1979). The cloze test was initiated by Taylor (1953, cited in Oller Conrad, 1971). Originally, there were two kinds of cloze tests: a rational cloze and a random cloze (see Example 1). The former refers to the deletion of specific types of words in a selected passage, such as prepositions or articles. The latter deals with a consistent deletion of every nth word, such as every fifth or seventh word. The students task is to fill in the deleted part in the cloze passage. Cloze tests can measure grammatical structure, written expression and vocabulary as well as reading comprehension (Steinman, 2002). In addition, some studies (Aitken, 1977; Oller Conrad, 1971; Oller, 1979; Stubbs Tucker, 1974) indicate that the cloze test is an effective instrument which is reliable and valid to measure English language proficiency. But the different deletion rates have an effect on the validity and the measurement of the cloze test (Alderson, 1979, 1980, 1983, 2000). Klein-Braley (1997) adds that the dele tion rates used in cloze tests require long passages. If a cloze test with the deletion of every fifth word provides 50 items, the text length should be at least 250 words (Oller, 1979). This problem has led to the development a new form of the cloze test which is called the C-Test. The C-Test, one of the new cloze tests, was constructed by Raatz and Klein-Braley (1981) in order to see if it could be more effective than the original cloze tests in measuring the students English language proficiency. The construction of the C-Test is based on the same principle as that of the cloze test; however, only the second half of every second word is deleted as can be seen in Example 2. In the C-Test, if the deleted word contains an even number of letters, the second half of this word will be deleted, such as exper i e n c e (10 letters). For a word with an odd number of letters, its larger part must be deleted, such as th e r e (5 letters). Moreover, many research studies indicate that the C-Test is more effective and more reliable than the original cloze (Connelly, 1997; DÃ ¶rnyei Katona, 1992; Klein-Braley, 1985, 1997), and yet, DÃ ¶rnyei and Katona (1992) report that the C-Test is too difficult for non-native students studying a target language such as English. As a result, Thongsa-nga (1998) adopted the original C-Test to make it suitable for Thai students studying English as a foreign language. Imitating the C-Test construction, Thongsa-nga (1998) proposed the New C-Test (the NC-Test) by deleting the second half of every third word in order to provide more clues for the non-native test takers, as can be seen in Example 2. According to the investigation of Thongsa-nga (1998), the NC-Test is employed as a proficiency test for non-native students at a secondary school level. The findings reveal that the NC-Test is reliable to assess the English language proficiency of these Thai Mathayomsuksa Six students. As far as this researcher has been able to establish, there has been no research investigating the use of the NC-Test for non-native university students in Thailand. So the present study is designed to examine the similarities and the differences in using the C-Test and the NC-Test in measuring the English language proficiency of first-yea r Thai undergraduate students. Another form of the cloze test, the Modified C-Test (the MC-Test), also known as the X-Test, was invented by Boonsathorn in 1987 (cited in Boonsathorn, 1990, p. 46). For the MC-Test, the first half of every second word is deleted (see Example 3). In the MC-Test, if the total number letters of the deleted word is an even number, the first half of this word will be deleted, such as d i s a gree (8 letters). For a word with an odd number of letters, its larger part will be deleted, such as o t h er. According to Boonsathorn (1987), the first half deletion in the MC-Test compares with the C-Test. His study reports that the MC-Test is more difficult and discriminates better than the C-Test. Some research findings show that the MC-Test has high reliability and validity and can be used with advanced students (KÃ ¶berl Sigott, 1996; Prapphal, 1994; Sigott KÃ ¶berl, 1993; Wonghiransombat, 1998). So the MC-Test should be further investigated to see its strengths and weaknesses in assessing English language skills. The MC-Test can be an alternative type for a better assessment of the English language proficiency of Thai undergraduate students, although the study of Sigott and KÃ ¶berl (1993) claims that the MC-Test is more difficult for non-native speakers. Wonghiransombat (1998) then proposed the New Modified C-Test (the NMC-Test) in order to make the original MC-Test appropriate for non-native students (p. 23). The construction of the NMC-Test is based on the same principle as the MC-Test; however, the first half of every third word is deleted to provide more clues as shown in Example 3. In addition, Wonghiransombat (1998) reports that the NMC-Test with the third starting point, or the third-word deletion, is easier and has better discrimination than the original MC-Test. Her study, the only research done in Thailand to examine the use of the MC-Test and the NMC-Test at the postgraduate level, also shows that the NMC-Test can be utilized to measure English language proficiency of Thai postgraduate students. Therefore, the present study is also aimed at examining the similarities and the differences in using the original MC-Test and the NMC-Test in measuring English language proficiency of the Thai undergraduate students. In addition to the construction of new language tests, language teachers should further investigate the students test-taking strategies in order to validate the language test and to examine what language abilities the test can measure (Cohen, 1994, 1998). Test-taking strategies can be defined as the processes that the test takers make use of in order to produce acceptable answers to questions and tasks, as well as the perceptions that they have about these questions and tasks before, during, and after responding to them (Cohen, 1998, p. 216). For instance, some students read an entire cloze passage before filling in the missing parts (Cohen, 1998). Moreover, the perceptions of language tests and test-taking strategies of the students with high- or low-language-ability are different (Cohen, 1984; Sasaki, 2000; Yamashita, 2003). As far as the present researcher has been able to determine, there has been no investigation in Thailand on cloze test-taking strategies. Therefore, cloze comp letion processes are also included in this study to examine the strategies used in taking the C-Test, the MC-Test, the NC-Test, and the NMC-Test for non-native undergraduate students. In conclusion, this research is aimed at comparing the new cloze formats (the NMC-Test and the NC-Test) with the older cloze formats (the MC-Test and the C-Test) and to examine the similarities and the differences in these four tests for Thai undergraduate students. Also, this study focuses on examining what test-taking strategies or procedures the students use while responding to the different types of cloze tests. 1.2 Purpose of the Study The present study aims to investigate the differences in the four types of the cloze tests by comparing the use of the MC-Test with that of NMC-Test, and the use of the C-Test with that of the NC-Test. In order to understand the cloze test-taking strategies, the study is also designed to find out to what extent undergraduate students use seven test-taking strategies while answering the different types of cloze tests. The strategies are based on the latest categorization of Sasaki (2000). The new cloze tests including the C-Test, the NC-Test, the MC-Test, and the NMC-Test were taken by first-year science students at Mahidol University in the first semester of academic year 2003. Therefore, the research questions are posed as follows: Does the NMC-Test yield different results from the original MC-Test in measuring students language proficiency? Does the NC-Test yield different results from the original C-Test in measuring students language proficiency? Does using every third-word deletion of the NMC-Test and the NC-Test affect the discrimination power of the test? What test-taking strategies do the first-year undergraduate students in the Faculty of Science at Mahidol University use while taking the C-Test, the MC-Test, the NMC-Test, and the NC-Test? 1.3 Significance of the Study This study is designed to compare the new cloze formats, including the original C-Test with the NC-Test, and the original MC-Test with the NMC-Test. The results of this study may provide an alternative way for language teachers to measure the English language proficiency of Thai undergraduate students learning EFL. Test-taking strategies are also studied to enable the language teachers to understand how effectively the students respond to the new types of cloze passage. 1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study (1) The study is limited to first year science students at Mahidol University in the first semester of the academic year 2003. The results cannot be generalized to other students, at other university levels, and in other areas. (2) The study focuses on first-year science students with high- and low-language-ability based on the English Entrance Examination scores, which were reported by the coordinator of the science program. (3) Only exact word scoring is employed in this study. (4) It is assumed that all of the first-year science students have had some background knowledge of English up to Mathayomsuksa Six. 1.5 Definitions of Terms Cloze test refers to a test in which the entire words are rationally or randomly deleted and the student is asked to fill in the missing words (Boonsathorn, 1990, 2000; Wonghiransombat, 1998). C-Test is a test in which the second part or the second half of every second word is deleted and the students task is to fill in the deleted parts (Boonsathorn, 1990; Klein-Braley, 1985). New C-Test (NC-Test) is a test in which the second part or the second half of every third word is deleted and the student is required to fill in the missing parts (Thongsa-nga, 1998). New Modified C-Test (NMC-Test) is a test in which the first part or the first half of every third word is deleted and the students task is to fill in the missing parts (Wonghiransombat, 1998). Modified C-Test (MC-Test) is a test in which the first part or the first half of every second word is deleted and the student is required to fill in the deleted parts (Boonsathorn, 1990, 2000; Wonghiransombat, 1998). Readability refers to how easily written materials can be read and understood. Readability depends on many factors, including (a) the average length of sentences in a passage, (b) the number of new words a passage contains, and (c) the grammatical complexity of the language used. Procedures used for measuring readability are known as readability formulae (Richards, Platt, Platt, 1993, p. 306). Test-taking strategies are the processes that the test takers make use of in order to produce acceptable answers to questions and tasks, as well as the perceptions that they have about these questions and tasks before, during, and after responding to the test (Cohen, 1998, p. 216).

Scrooge in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Essay -- Christmas Car

Scrooge in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens The novel, ‘A Christmas Carol’, is more than just a mere story instead it tries to expose the negative side of Victorian society and the reason behind this horror, the greed of the wealthy, through the development of the character Scrooge. All this while attempting to prompt readers with Scrooge’s similar wealth to make a change. As mentioned earlier, the development of Scrooge’s character is vital to this and I will explain how his character develops as the story proceeds and how it is used to accomplish the aim as mentioned above. In the first stave, Dickens tries to point out that Scrooge is a character that society considers negative. In the introduction, Dickens points out Scrooge’s wealth to immediately aim any point about society not only to average people but in particular to people of Scrooge’s similar wealth, he does this by describing Scrooge as ‘an excellent man of business on the very day of the funeral’, this not only proves Scrooge’s wealth but also that Scrooge is a cold character, the first hint of the truly negative character of Scrooge to be revealed later in this stave, since he has the heart to do business on the day of the funeral of his long time business partner. What makes this worse is that Marley was Scrooge’s equal in terms of character as far as the story goes since Dickens chose to describe what Scrooge meant to Marley as ‘his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole friend and his sole mourner’, therefore since Scrooge showed little sympathy in the death of ‘his equal’ it gives the readers a sense of cannibalism since Scrooge is practically turning his back on Marley in his death. Even in the introduction, Dickens ... ...as changed as Scrooge is not usually earnest at all. Not only which, Scrooge seems to be a lot happier after this change as proven by the quote â€Å"Oh, glorious.† This is Scrooge describing the environment, in his description he describes it positively showing a sign that he is happier. This is important as it is a signal to readers in Scrooge’s financial situation that they will be happier after the change. My conclusion is that Scrooge’s character is used by Dickens to represent an exgaratted stereotypical version of the Victorian wealthy businessman who is greedy. The story is not only an attempt by Dickens to tell these businessmen what they are missing out on by being greedy(as proven by Scrooge’s happiness after the change) but also meant to expose the unfairness in Society where the rich who can do the most to improve lives do not even try to do so.